Although the volume of trade between India and Rome seems to have been large, it was not carried on it articles of daily use for the commerce people there was a brick commerce in luxury goods.
The Romans mainly imported spices for which south India was famous. They imported muslin, pearls, jewels, and precious stones from central and south India. Iron goods, especially cutlery, formed an important item of export to the Roman Empire.
Silk was directly sent from China to the Roman Empire through north Afghanistan at Iran. But the establishment of the Parthian rule in Iran and the neighbouring are created difficulties. Therefore silk had to be diverted to the western Indian ports through the north-west part of the subcontinent. Sometimes it also found its way from China to India via the east coast of India. From there was considerable transit trade in silk between India and the Roman empire.
The Romans exported to India wine, wine-amphorae and various other types of pottery. Roman writer Pliny, who wrote his account called Natural History in Latin in A.D. 77, believed that Rome was being drained of gold on account of her trade with India. Since the Westerners were very much fond of Indian pepper, it is called yavanpriyai.
The concept of the balance of trade may not have been known to the people. But numerous finds of Roman coins and pottery in the peninsula leave no doubt that India was a gainer in its trade with the Roman Empire.
The loss of Roman money was felt so much that eventually steps had to be taken Rome to ban its trade with India in pepper and steel goods.
Although Roman traders resided in south India, there is little evidence for Indians residing in the Roman Empire.
Black Pepper was one of the most thing thing imported by Greek traders from Ancient India. In ancient times the people in Central Asia are called as Yavanas in India. They liked the pepper and imports large amount of pepper from India so the pepper is named as Yavana-the people of foreign countries. Priya-they like pepper so it was called as Yavanapriya.
Chaolung Sukaphaa (1189 – 1268 AD) - First Ahom King of Assam
Chaolung Sukaphaa, also Siu-Ka-Pha, the first Ahom king in medieval Assam, was the founder of the Ahom kingdom. A Tai prince originally from Mong Mao, the kingdom he established in 1228 existed for nearly six hundred years and in the process unified the indigenous ethnic groups of the region.
According to Ahom tradition, Sukaphaa was a descendant of the god Khunlung, who had come down from the heavens and had ruled Mong-Ri-Mong-Ram. During the reign of Suhungmung, which saw the composition of the first Assamese chronicles. Sukaphaa brings a divine diamond chum-Phra-rung-sheng-mung in a box, a divine tusked elephant, a divine chicken Kaichengmung, a divine embroidered cloth, a divine pair of drums, a divine sword Hengdan.
According to Phukan (1992), Sukaphaa was born to Chao Chang-Nyeu and Nang-Mong Blak-Kham-Sen in the Tai state of Mong Mao, close to present-day Ruili in Yunnan, China. Chao Chang Nyeu was a prince from Mong-Ri Mong-Ram, who had traveled to Mong Mao possibly on an expedition. Mong Mao was then ruled by Chao Tai Pung. Chao Chang Nyeu was later befriended by Pao Meo Pung, the son of the ruler, who gave his sister Blak Kham Sen in marriage. Sukaphaa was born of this union not later than 1189 CE and was brought up by his maternal grandparents. Pao Meo Pung, who eventually ruled Mong Mao, had no male heir and Sukaphaa, his nephew, was nominated to succeed him. A son born late to Pao Meo Pung’s queen ended Sukaphaa’s claim to the throne of Mong Mao.
After his 19 years as crown prince came to an end, Sukaphaa decided to leave Mong Mao. According to tradition, his grandmother advised him thus – “no two tigers live in the same jungle, no two kings sit on the same throne.” Accordingly, Sukaphaa is said to have left Chieng-Sen the capital of Mong Mao in the year 1215 CE.
Migration to Assam
According to most Buranjis, Sukaphaa left Mong Mao in 1215. Some Tai chronicles from outside Assam record the journey of Sukaphaa from Mong-Mit Kupklingdao in 1227 where he was the ruler. Sukaphaa followed an older known route from Yunnan to Assam that passed through Myitkyina, Mogaung and the upper Irrawaddy river valley.
On his way, he stopped at various places and crossed the Khamjang river to reach the Nangyang lake in 1227. Here he subjugated the Nagas very ferociously and established a Mong. He left one Kan-Khrang-Mong there to guard the passage back, and proceeded to cross the Patkai hills at the Pangsau pass and reached Namrup (in the Brahmaputra valley) in December 1228.
He was accompanied by three queens: Ai-Me-Chao-Lo, Nang-Sheng-Chum-Hpa and Yi-Lo-Weng-Ching-Chum-Hpa, two sons and a daughter; chiefs from five other dependent Mongs; members of the priestly class and soldiers—a total contingent of 9,000. Sukaphaa had with him 300 horses fitted with saddles and bridles and two elephants. Heavy arms were transported along a different route.
King of Ahom kingdom
The journey, from Mong Mao to Namrup thus took Sukaphaa about thirteen years and the year he reached Namrup is considered as the year the Ahom kingdom was established.
Even though Sukaphaa treated the people of the Patkai hills very severely on his way to the Brahmaputra valley, his approach to the population in Assam was conciliatory and non-confrontational. He married the daughters of Badaucha, the Matak Chief and Thakumatha, the Barahi chief and established cordial relations with them. As he began establishing his domain, he avoided regions that were heavily populated. He encouraged his soldiers as well as members of the Ahom elite to marry locally.
A process of Ahomization bolstered the process of integration. The Barahi and the Moran, speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages, called Sukaphaa’s people “Ha-Cham”, that later on developed into “Assam”, the name of the kingdom; and “Ahom”, the name of the people.
With the help of local recruits, he established three large farms for sali rice cultivation.
At the time of his death in 1268, his kingdom was bounded by the Brahmaputra River in the west, the Disang River in the north, the Dikhow River in the south and the Naga Hills in the east.
Ahom Capital
Over the next few years, he moved from place to place searching for the right capital, leaving behind his representative at each stage to rule the colonized land.
Having reached Namrup, Sukaphaa bridged the Sessa river, and went upstream along the Burhi Dihing river looking to establish a colony for wet rice cultivation. He did not find the region conducive to cultivation and returned downstream to Tipam.
In 1236, he left Tipam for Abhaypur. A flood made his move again in 1240 down the Brahmaputra to Habung. Another flood and he moved again in 1244, down the Brahmaputra to the Dikhowmukh, and then up the Dikhow river to Ligirigaon. Leaving a detachment at Ligirigaon, he moved again in 1246 to Simaluguri.
In 1253, he abandoned Simaluguri for Charaideo, his final capital, where he finally died in 1268. He built his capital city at Charaideo near present-day Sibsagar town.
The capital of the Ahom kingdom changed many times after this, but Charaideo remained the symbolic center of Ahom rule.
Memorial
Since 1996, December 2 has been celebrated in Assam as the Sukaphaa Day, or Assam Day (Axom Divawkh), to commemorate the advent of the first king of the Ahom kingdom in Assam after his journey over the Patkai Hills
An award is given by State Govt. that day to a prominent personality.
Sukapha Samannay Kshetra – Inaugurated on December 2, 2015, at Mohbondha, Jorhat.
NCERT Books (Download) – History Study Material for APSC Civil Services Exam
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Assam & North East India during Govt of India Act, 1935 and India’s Independence
Government of India Act, 1935 in North East India
Under the Government of India Act, 1935, the administrative pattern of the region was bifurcated from April 1937.
The Mizo Hills, Naga Hills, North Cachar hills and North East Frontier tracts were called “excluded areas” i.e. these areas were excluded from ministerial jurisdiction and were guarded by “inner line” which prevented the entry of outsiders without permit.
The Garo Hills, the British Portion of Khasi Jaintia Hills and Mikir Hills were termed “partially excluded” areas.
Two princely states of Manipur and Tripura maintained relationship with the British govt through the agency of the Government of Assam, and an “unadministered Naga tribal area”.
The 1935 Act marked a major beginning in the growth of tribal alliances. Major tribes of the hills and the plains such as the Nagas, Khasis, Bodos, Miris, Kacheris, and Seweris pressed their demands through various organizations such as the Naga club, Seng Khasi club, Khasi Darbar, Tribal League and Ahom League. Many of their leaders like Rup Nath Brahma, Karo Chandra Boley and Jadav Chandra Khaklari were members of the Legislative Assembly.
The Naga Hill District Tribal Council was organized by Charles Pawsy, Deputy Commissioner of the Naga Hills district, in 1945. In April 1946, the organization was renamed the Naga Nationalist Council and the idea of ethnocentric nationalism emerged.
During the first half of 1946 two other prominent organizations (1) Garo National Council and (2) Mizo Union were formed.
Political trends of frontal tribes during India’s Independence
During the period of India’s independence, there were two major political trends among the tribes of North -East India
Groups like Mizo Union, Garo National Council, East Indian Tribal Union and All Party Hill Leaders Conference were in favour of asserting more tribal autonomy within the Indian Union.
Groups like the Naga Nationalist Council, the United Mizo Freedom Organization and the Mizo National Front wanted complete independence for tribal areas.
Social Movement of Tribes in Assam & North East India
Movements of the frontier tribes (North East India)
The North-Eastern tribal region differed substantially from the rest of the tribal India in two basic aspects, (i) tribals formed an overwhelming majority and so were relatively economically and socially secure and (ii) because of their geo-political situation of living in the vicinity of the international border, this region was not completely integrated with the politico-economic system of colonialism and remained somewhat isolated from the main land.
North-Eastern frontier has witnessed tribal movements of considerable proportion. These movements tended to remain aloof from the freedom struggle often incorporating a demand for political autonomy either within the India or as a separate unit. This was also because geo-political isolation from mainland India and their shared ethnic and cultural affinities with tribesmen across the border.
There was hardly any agrarian forest-based movement as the tribals remained in possession of land and surrounding forests except Tripura. The movements in the north-east were by and large revolutionary or revivalist.
Unlike other part of India, Sanskritision did not became popular in this region due to their relative isolation from the Hindu society and spread of Christian missionary activities.
The movements in the North-East tended to be political and secular and were mainly due to tribal’s deep resent of British penetration in their areas, which started during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26), Annexed the Jaintia hills in 1832, including the earlier 25 khasi states. Each of these events was followed by revolts.
De-Sanskritisation Movement
In Manipur, a ‘De-Sankritisation’ movement was begun among the Meiteis, some of whom rebelled against the corrupt malpractises of the neo-Vaishnavite Brahmins during the rule of the Churchand Maharaj (1891-1941). They felt that a combination of Brahmins, the Maharaja and the British were spoiling their society, and wanted to return to the nativistic Sanmali cult and movement started in 1939.
In 1946, Raj Kumar Bhubansena formed the state Congress. Hajin Irbot formed the Krishak Sena and the Communist Party.
Tribal Revolts in Assam & North East India – PART 2: (APSC Assam History Notes) (Rani Gaidinliu’s Naga Movement, Zeliangsong Movement, Naga Kuki revolt, Lushais and Kharwar rebellion)
Tribal Revolts in Assam & North East India – PART 2
Rani Gaidinliu’s Naga Movement
Rongmei leader Jadonang came to the fore to bring about social unity and to revitalize the age-old religion by abolishing irrational customs. His aimed to establish a Naga Raj but was captured and hanged on August 29, 1931.
After that the movement was carried on by 17-year-old Gaidinliu, she integrated the tribal movement with the Civil Disobedience movement and preached disobedience to oppressive laws and non-payment of house tax.
The movement tried to link with Indian National Congress but it remained weak as Congress could not enter the hills.
Jadonang’s religious ideas crystallized in the Heraka cult led by Gaidinliu. After the movement was finally suppressed in 1932, it was converted into a peaceful movement with the establishment of tribal various organizations.
Zeliangsong Movement
The Zeliangsong movement among the Nagas of Manipur belonging to Zemi, Liangmei, and Rongmei tribes.
Naga Revolt:
The Nagas revolted against the British in 1849, but was suppressed in 1850-51.
Kuki revolt:
The kukis of the Lushai Hills and nearby hilly regions of Manipur and Tripura attacked the British territories repeatedly in 1829, 1844 and 1849.
The Kukis had migrated to Manipur in the 18th century.
The British policy of recruitment for coolie labour during World War – I seriously affected the stability of labour–short Kuki economy in general and their agriculture particularly.
Guerrilla war under their chiefs went on for two years, fuelled also by other grievances like pothang (tribals being made to carry baggages of official without payment) and government efforts to stop shifting cultivation of jhum.
Lushais:
In 1842 the Lushais raided British territory of Arakan, Sylhet and defeated the British forces. In 1844 the Lushais attacked Manipuri villages and reprisals by the British followed. Sukla, the Lushai leader, was arrested and transported for life. In 1860 the Lushai chief raided Tripura and killed 186 British subjects.
Kharwar rebellion:
The Kharwar rebellion took place in 1870 and in 1882, Sambhudan led a revolt of the Kacha Nagas of Cachar to attacked the whites. Sambhuden who claimed that his magic had made his followers immune to bullets.
Some other tribal movements
In 1835 the saflas raided British plains subjects and again they revolted in 182-73.
In 1836 the Mishimis killed a botanist, Griffith and two missionaries.
Between 1839 and 1842 there was a Khampti uprising in Assam when they attacked and killed British Agent Adam White and 80 other officers and soldiers.
Between 1860 and 1862 there was a revolt of Syntengs of Jaintia Hills.
Tribal uprisings in Tripura
Tripura witnessed large-scale and agrarian and forest-based movements. The demographic profile of tribals changed from 64% in 1874 to 36% in 1911 because the Raja of Tripura invited Bengalis to settle in Tripura for economic development of the state.
Parikshit Jamatia led a movement against arbitrary rate of house tax in 1863. Bharti Sangh started revolutionary activities in Tripura in mid-1920s. The Reangs under the leadership of Ratnamani rose an armed rebellion in 1942–1943 in the southern sub-division of Tripura and proclaimed independence.
A Ganga Parishad was formed in 1937 similar to the States People’s Conferences in other Princely States.
Tribal Revolts in Assam & North East India – PART 1
Khasi Uprising (1829-1833)
After the end of the first Anglo-Burmese war, the British occupied the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia hills, and planned to build a road linking the Brahmaputra valley with Sylhet passing through the entire length of the Khasi area.
Conscriptions of labourers for road construction and a British garrison disobeying orders of Khasi king to stop the road construction project, led the Khasis to revolt under the leadership of Tirot Sing Syiem.
The Khasi chiefs number around 30 decided to throw out the British from the region and organized themselves under Bar Manik. The Garos also joined the revolt.
The revolt lasted for four years and was finally suppressed in early 1833 and the British gained supremacy over these hills. Tirot Sing was eventually captured by the British in January 1833 and deported to Dhaka and he died on 17 July 1835.
Ahom Revolt (1828)
To suppress the Moamoria rebels who captured the capital Rangpur, Ahom King Gaurinath Singha sought help of East India Company. In 1792 Thomas Welsh came with 550 well trained and well armed troops and occupied Guwahati and restored Rangpur to Gaurinath Singha, and they returned to Bengal on May 25, 1794.
Again British came to Assam’s rescue in the first Burma War (1824-26). Though they had pledged to withdraw from Assam after the first Burma War (1824-26), but in contrast, they tried to incorporate the Ahom territories into their dominion. This resulted in a rebellion against the British in 1828.
Under the leadership of Ahom prince Gomdhar Konwar, an armed revolt rose against the British, a year after it was annexed by the British from the Ahoms with the signing of the Treaty of Yandabo. He along with Dhanjoy Borgohain and their followers started a revolt to fight against the British and burned the British armoury at Rangpur and fought the British in Mariani.
The British military suppressed this revolt, Konwar fled to the Naga Hills but soon was arrested and sentenced to seven years of imprisonment and exiled to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Though the revolt failed in it’s goal against the British, they succeeded to put a sense of independence in the minds of the people. As a result as a conciliatory policy, in the year 1833, the British handed over the entire Upper Assam, except Sadiya and Matak region, to Ahom Prince Purandar Singh on the condition of yearly tribute of 50,000 rupees.
In 1838, Purandar Singh defaulted in payments of revenue; the British formally annexed the kingdom, putting an end to the reign of Ahom Dynasty.
Singhphos rebellion (1830-1839)
While the British were engaged in the long lasting warfare with the Khasis, the Singhphos broke into open rebellion in early 1830, which was suppressed very quickly within 3 months. But the discontentment of the Singhphos remained and again the rose in rebellion in 1839 when they killed the British political agent.
Again in 1843, the Singhphos Chief Nirang Phidu attacked the British garrison and killed several soldiers. In 1849, Khasma Singhphos attacked British village in Assam and was captured in 1855.
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APSC Mains 2016 History - Paper II
PART – A
Answer any eight from the following questions (each within 250 words) : 20 x 8 = 160
Q1. Discuss the Reformation in England. How far was it different from the Reformation in Germany? 12 + 8=20
Q2. What were the relations of the first two Stuart Kings with the Parliament? What were its results? 12+ 8 = 20
Q3. Why did England enter the War of Spanish Succession? What did she gain by the Treaty of Ultrecht? 10 +10 =20
Q4. Analyse the causes responsible for the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. What was the contribution of the French philosophers in the revolution? 12 + 8 = 20
Q6. Discuss the causes for the rise and growth of the Fascism in Italy. What was the contribution under Benito Mussolini? 12 + 8 = 20
Q7. Who was Lenin? What role did he play in the rise of USSR? 80+12=20
Q8. Critically analyse the causes of the Revolution of 1848. What were its consequences? 14+6=20
Q9. What were the causes of the Second World War (1939-1945)? What were it’s effects on world politics? 12+8 = 20 Question from our APSC Mains History Test SeriesTest 8: Q9. (20 Marks)
Q10. Trace the growth of the Nationalist Movement in China. How far did it influence the Japanese Policy towards China? 8+12=20
Q11. Assess the role of the UNO as an instrument for the establishment of world peace. 20
Q12. How did the growth of Japanese Militarism rupture international peace and stability? 20
PART – B
Answer any five from the following questions (each within 150 words): 8 x 5=40
Q13. How did the Industrial Revolution affect the socio-economic fabric of the people of England? 8
Q20. Critically assess the causes of the failure of Disbarment between 1920 and 1939. 8
A total questions worth 106 Marks in APSC CC(Mains) Exam 2016 – History Paper 2, were matched with the questions of our APSC Mains History Test Series.
Many aspirants had enrolled in our APSC Mains History Test Series and were able to achieve enough marks to succeed the APSC 2016 Exam with flying colours. We are dedicated to continue the same quality and make the APSC Mains Test Series 2018 more useful for the preparation of APSC Mains History optional paper.
APSC Mains 2016 History - Paper I
PART – A
Answer any eight questions from the following within 250 words each: 20 x 8 = 160
Q1. Discuss the important features of the Indus Valley Civilization. Explain the economic and religious life of the Indus people. 10 + 5 +5=20
Q2. Trace the emergence and growth of the Caste system in the Rigvedic Period. Account for the expansion of this system in the Later Vedic Period. 12+ 8 = 20
Q3. Estimate the place of Asoka in history. What changed did he bring about in the administrative system of the Mauryas? 10 +10 =20
Q4. Discuss the emergence of Magadha as a powerful State and contribution of Chandragupta Maurua in this regard. Throw some light on his military administration. 5+ 10 + 5 = 20
Q5. Make an assessment of Samudragupta’s military expeditions which established him as a great conqueror. Do you find any difference between his Northern and Southern Policy in exerting his dominance over the States he conquered? 10 + 10 = 20
Q6. Who were the Pallavas? Analyze their contributions towards the art and cultural history of Southern India. 5 + 15 = 20
Q7. What were the causes for the decline of the Mughal Empire? To what extent was Aurangazeb responsible for the downfall of the Mughal Empire? 15 + 5 = 20
Q8. Discuss the causes and results of the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. 12 + 8 = 20
Q9. Explain on what ground Warren Hastings may be regarded as the real founder of British Empire in India. What were the factors leading to his impeachment? 15 + 5 = 20
Q10. Discuss the role of Maharaja Ranjit Singha in uniting the Sikhs as a Nation and in establishment of Sikh State. What were the factors leading to the downfall of the Sikhs? 10+10 =20
Q11. What is ‘Doctrine of Lapse’? How it worked as a main tool in curbing the independence of the Indian native States? How far this policy may be held responsible for the outbreak of Sepoy Mutiny in 1857? 5 + 10 + 5 =20
Q12. Explain the causes for starting the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1921. How were the people of India involved in this movement as a whole? Under what circumstances this movement has to be withdrawn? 10+5+5 =20
