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Burmese Invasion of Assam – Late Ahom Period History
The Burmese invasion in Assam is a significant event in Assam’s history. There were three Burmese invasions of Assam between 1817 and 1826, during which time the Kingdom of Assam came under the control of Burma from 1821 to 1825.
Main Causes of Burmese Invasion of Assam
During the 18th century, the Burmese kings started their territorial expansion on a large-scale. The Burmese king Alaungpaya invaded Manipur and Cachar,which were close to the border of Burma.
The Burmese king Bodawpaya also followed the policy of territorial expansion and steadily expanded his realm westward. The Burmese wanted to use Assam as their central military base against the Britishers. In 1784, Bodawpaya attacked and annexed the kingdom of Arakan thus extending the Burmese empire in the entire Bay of Bengal region from Margui Island to Chattagram port.
Frequent internal revolts and conspiracies weakened the power of the Ahom kingdom and its rulers. The Burmese King Bodawpaya offered to help Badan Chandra Borphukan in a battle at Ghiladhari 1817 to defeat Purnanada Burhagohain’s forces and defeated them. Purnananda died of grief on losing the battle. The Burmese army again defeated the Ahoms at Kathalbari and occupied Jorhat. This has strengthened Burmese hold on Assam.
The Burmese became a major political power of the North-east region. The Burmese came into direct contact with Assam. The boundary line of Burma came in a closer proximity to that of the British power, leading to several clashes in the later years.
Major consequences of Burmese Invasion of Assam
Downfall of Ahom empire: The path of the downfall of six hundred years old Ahom rule was set with the Burmese invasion.
Ahom king became a protected king of Burma: Since the Burmese came to help the Ahom king Chandrakanta Singha,remained under the tutelage of the King of Burma.
Political upheavals: The invasion of Assam by the Burmese brought about political and administrative instability in Assam. The weakening of the monarchy led King Chandrakanta Singha to flee to British territory in Bengal. A later king Purandhar Singha also had to follow suit. Thus internal conflicts weakened the military,and the high nobles and officials failed to protect the country.
Affected economy and social balance: The Burmese occupied Assam had adverse effects on the economy as production declined and traders were compelled to wind up their business. Many Assamese customs, ways and beliefs affected their contact with the foreigners. The Burmese invasion created a group of nobles called Duwaniyas, who started exploiting the masses. This created a lot of social upheavals forcing people to run away from their villages into the hills and valleys. All these affected Assamese society considerably.
Led to the first Anglo-Burmese war: The occupation of Assam by the Burmese forces posed a threat to the British power. The Burmese had already conquered Arakan,Manipur,Cachar and the conquest of Assam made them a major political power that challenged British supremacy. British efforts to stop the Burmese from advancing further led to the first Anglo-Burmese War of 1824-1826.
Treaty of Yandaboo: The Anglo-Burmese wars ended with the signing of the famous treaty of Yandaboo,whereby the Burmese were asked to vacate Assam. The treaty allowed the British to occupy Assam.
End of Ahom independence: The occupation of Assam by the Burmese in 1819 marked the end of Ahom independence. Initially, it was occupied by the Burmese and later by the British.
The Burmese invasion of 1819 is a turning point in the history of Assam.
Architectural remains belonging to periods from early medieval days can be found in scattered historic ruins and ancient temples, in many places of Assam, including Tezpur, Bongaigaon, Guwahati, Sivasagar, Hajo, Goalpara, Nagaon, Golaghat etc. Assam’s historical architecture is greatly influenced by its cultural contact with adjacent regions of present-day Bangladesh and Burma, yet maintaining its firm cultural relation with mainland India. The architectural heritage of Assam can be easily perceived when seen through the lens of how various dynasties ruled over the land of Assam. There are literary and epigraphic records referring to architectural activities related to the building of secular and religious buildings in Pre-Ahom Assam.
The Kalika Purana mentions some important cities of ancient Assam. Pragjyotishapura which is termed as giri-durga by the Kalika Purana. The Bhagavata Purana also describes the city as being inaccessible due to its strong defense, both by nature and man. Other cities mentioned by Kalika Purana are- Alaka, Chandravati, Bhogavati, Varasana and Sonitapura.
Architecture in Pre-Ahom Period
The earliest evidence of architecture in Assam dates back to the Gupta Period, during the rule of the Varman dynasty in Kamarupa. The Gupta idiom is visible in most of the architectural works belonging to the period of the Varmans as the kingdom of Kamarupa shared a close proximity with the Gupta mainland, especially the western most part of the kingdom of Kamarupa. Buildings with exquisite Gupta carvings have been found in the neighbourhood of Guwahati and Tezpur.
Da-Parbatia, an ancient village near Tezpur has ruins of two ancient temples, one belonging to the 5th or 6th century, on which another temple was constructed during the Ãhom rule. Amidst the lush greenery and the snow-capped Himalayas, the temple ruins show a square-shaped Garbhagriha (sanctum) while the mandap (outer gallery) is rectangular. The site is a major attraction with a well depicted Hellenistic style of sculptures and figurines that resemble Gupta style.
From almost the beginning of the Varman dynasty in the 5th century to the end of the Salastambha dynasty in the 10th century, the architectural remains can be traced in and around Tezpur. Another historical marvel from the Salasthamba period is the Rock-cut Caves in Bongaigaon. The five rock-cut caves have a brick and mud masonry made platform, which was built during a later period. The art and architecture of the caves is an exemplary example of the kind that was practiced during the time. Although not much is known about these caves, one of the best preserved caves has a length of 1.90 meters and comes with a rounded verandah with a flight of steps, unlike the other caves.
The Bargaon Inscription mentions another fortress city named Durjaya or Sri Durjaya which points to its invincible defense power. The Nagaon grant of Balavarman mentions that king Vanamala had erected a palace both aesthetically beautiful and functionally efficient.
Hieun Tsang in the 7th century mentioned about some hundred of deva temples in Kamarupa. The Yogini Tantra mentions the sacred tirtha of Apunarbhava which was adorned by several temples. The Umachal rock inscription is the earliest epigraphic record to mention about a rock cut shrine dedicated to lord Balabhadrasvamin. Tezpur grant of Vanamala refers to the rebuilding of the Hatakasulin temple. The Gachtal grant of Gopala refers to king Indrapala as having constructed the white washed temples of Sambhu.There are references to religious establishment under Buddhism and Jainism. Initiated by the Varmans of Kamarupa (4th to 7th century) architectural activities continued to develop and prosper. It had similarities with the Imperial Guptas as they both patronized Brahmanical culture. The architectural activities continued during the times of the Salastambhas and the Palas and by the second half of the 12th century, it had almost passed into obscurity.
Architecture in Ahom Period
Ahoms established their cultural and economic stability in the region for over six centuries, which can be seen in their monuments in the town of Sivasagar. The town has over 170 tanks, depicting a typical style of architecture. The most famous heritage sites of Assam, Kareng Ghar, and Talatal Ghar are historical treasures of this period. In the former capital Rangpur, Swargeo Rudra Singha built a palace from organic bricks, which was later further constructed into a seven-story palace by his successor Rajeshwara; the three ground storeys are known as ‘Talatal Ghar’ while the rest four-storey structure is called ‘Kareng Ghar’. Another construction by King Swargdeo is a remarkable two-storey structure of the Ahom period, called Rang Ghar. It is a royal sports pavilion also used for cultural programs and to watch the traditional ‘bull-fights’. The main entrance has two stone carved crocodiles while the interiors are decorated with magnificent sculptures.
In this second phase of temple architecture, inclination towards Hinduism was observed with the erection of Hindu temples, especially devoted to Goddess Durga. Subsequently temple architecture adopted the “Nilãcala type” in the construction of Jai Dol. Though Islamic influence is seen, the indigenous do-chala typed gained prominence. The style reached its zenith during the period of Siva Singha, after the construction of the tallest historical monument in Assam, the Siva Temple at Sivasagar. Like the pre-Ãhom period, the temples of this period also have an Indo-Aryan influence, consisting of Garbhagriha, Vimana, Sikhara, and Mandap.
Of the secular structure, tanks excavated during the Ahom period is an outstanding example. Most of the tanks are associated with kings. Excavation of tanks was considered the highest act of piety and was popularly known as sagar. Besides the tanks, other secular structures were the ramparts, barricades, road-cum-bunds and others.
The Maidams are another architectural wonder credited to the Ahoms. These are burial mounds, which appear hemispherical in shape from the exterior and at the same time they vary in size. The size of the maidam depends on the power, status and resources of the deceased person. The vault inside the maidam holds the mortal remains of the dead.
Ahom architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Siva Singha. His projects at Gaurisagar and Sibsagar produced the largest edifices of the period. The Gaurisagar tank was excavated and also laid the construction of three temples with independent boundary with a central alignment. The three temples were consecrated to Devi, Siva and Visnu. The largest and finest of the 3 temple is the Devi temple which can claim to be the first temple of nagara style built in brick. The Devi daul consisted of a nagara style type having a pancaratna Vastupurusamandala. It has an antarala and a spacious mandapa of the Assamese do chala type. The Siva temple and the Visnu temple are a nilacala type of structure.
Islamic influence on Architecture
In the western parts of Assam, Mughal advances are marked by three Muslim monuments: Rangamati mosque near Gauripur, Pach Piran Dargah, and Mirijumlar Masjid. Architecture of Assam has the greatest influence from the Indo-Aryan style of architecture that was predominant since the pre-Ãhom period. However, due to the Mughal rule in mainland India, the religious buildings of late medieval Assam highlight the Islamic style influence. The Hindu temples were designed using Saracenic principles by masons experienced in Islamic architecture.
Some of the most noteworthy secular building architecture are three monuments that were built during the Ãhom period- the Rang Ghar, the Talatal Ghar, and the Kareng Ghar. The Rang Ghar is built in Islamic style for the members of the then royal family. However, the Talatal Ghar is built in the Mughal style and the Kareng Ghar is built in the South-Asiatic style.
Architecture in Koch Dynasty
During the reign of King Naranãrãyana and his brother Chilãrãi, the dynasty reached its epitome of glory. The king built the Kamakhya temple on Nilachal hill, in 1565 AD over ruins that date back to even before the pre-Ãhom period. The ‘Nilachala style’ originated from this temple, which used a more Islamic style ignoring the IndoAryan style of architecture.
Architecture in Jayantia and Kachari Dynasty
The Kacharis had its first capital in Dimapur and then later shifted to Maibong and Khaspur. The monuments, monolithic hut, and rock-cut temples of these days resemble a typical Bengal do-chala structure. The Kachari architecture grew heavily under Bengal’s influence and ended with the decline of the Kachari rule. The Kachari Fort built during this time depicts the noteworthy architecture and a mix of Non-Aryan and Hinduism culture.
Important Inscriptions of Kamarupa region of Ancient and Medieval Assam
The Kamarupa inscriptions are a number of 5th-century to early 13th-century rock, copper plate and clay seal inscriptions associated with the rulers and their subordinates of the Kamarupa region.
Most common language of these inscriptions is Sanskrit. But there appear systematic Prakriticisms that indicate an underlying colloquial Indo-Aryan language, called Kamarupi Prakrit.
The earliest of these inscriptions, the Umachal and Nagajari-Khanikargaon rock inscriptions, belong to the 5th century and written in a script which was nearly identical to the eastern variety of the Gupta script.
There is a steady evolution in the script over the centuries, and last of the scripts, for example the Kanai-boroxiboa inscription using Kamarupi, a proto-Assamese script. The script continues development as the Medieval Assamese script from the 13th to the 19th century and emerges as the modern Assamese script.
Conflicts & Battles between Ahom Kingdom and Mughal Empire
Ahom–Mughal conflicts started with the first Mughal attack on the Ahom kingdom in Battle of Samdhara in 1616 till the final Battle of Itakhuli in 1682. It ended with the Ahom influence extended to the Manas river which remained the western boundary of the kingdom till Assam came under British Administration in 1826.
Battle of Samdhara was the first battle fought between Mughals and the Ahoms in 1616.
Battle of Alaboi was a battle fought between the Ahom Kingdom and the Mughal Empire around 5 August 1669. The result was a Mughal victory, but Ram Singh I’s next move to open negotiations for peace. The Assamese also were tired of war, and hostilities were suspended for a time. Soon after the battle of Alaboi, Chakradhwaj Singha died in 1669. He was succeeded by his brother Udayaditya Singha.
Battle of Saraighat was a naval battle fought in 1671 between the Mughal Empire (led by the Kachwaha raja, Ram Singh I), and the Ahom Kingdom (led by Lachit Borphukan) on the Brahmaputra river at Saraighat, now in Guwahati, Assam, India. Although weaker, the Ahom Army defeated the Mughal Army by massive army, clever diplomatic negotiations to buy time, guerrilla tactics, psychological warfare, military intelligence and by exploiting the sole weakness of the Mughal forces—its navy. The Battle of Saraighat was the last battle in the last major attempt by the Mughals to extend their empire into Assam.
Battle of Itakhuli was fought in 1682 between the Ahom Kingdom and the Mughal Empire. The Ahoms pushed back Mughal control to the west of the Manas river. The main battle was fought at a garrison island on the Brahmaputra, in which the Mughal fauzdar, Mansur Khan, was defeated and the remnant of the Mughal forces pursued to the Manas river. With this win, the Ahoms recovered Sarkar Kamrup from the Mughals.
Nupi Lan or Women’s war, is an important movement in the history of Manipur. The Manipuri women waged two historic wars in 1904 and 1939 against mass exploitation and artificial famine triggered by the British imperialists.
First Nupi Lan which broke out in 1904 was against the British order to send Manipuri men to Kabow Valley to fetch timber for re-building the then Police Agent’s bungalow after it was ravaged by fire. The first Nupi Lan was stirred up by the heirs-apparent of the erstwhile ruling family who did not like the selection of Chura Chand Singh as the King of Manipur. They persuaded the women of Manipur to resist the British government’s order to resuscitate the Lalup (forced labour where the male member of society between the age of 17 and 60 should work freely for ten days in every forty days of work). The struggle in which more than 5,000 women took part lasted for a week.
Second Nupi Lan was set off by the indiscriminate export of rice from Manipur by Marwari business men with the support of British rulers. It resulted in a famine-like situation in Manipur even though it was harvest season. Although the movement was started as an agitation by Manipuri women against the economic and administrative policies of the Manipur Maharaja and the Political Agent Mr. Gimson of the British Government (1933-45) in Manipur, it evolved into a movement for the constitutional and administrative reform in Manipur.
When the Manipuri women, whom had been playing a decisive role in the agrarian economy of the region, came out in legion on the streets against the British policy of massive export of rice, the authorities responded by deploying military and police force against the unarmed women protesters. The struggle lasted for several months but subsided as a result of the outbreak of Second World War.
Chaolung Sukaphaa (1189 – 1268 AD) - First Ahom King of Assam
Chaolung Sukaphaa, also Siu-Ka-Pha, the first Ahom king in medieval Assam, was the founder of the Ahom kingdom. A Tai prince originally from Mong Mao, the kingdom he established in 1228 existed for nearly six hundred years and in the process unified the indigenous ethnic groups of the region.
According to Ahom tradition, Sukaphaa was a descendant of the god Khunlung, who had come down from the heavens and had ruled Mong-Ri-Mong-Ram. During the reign of Suhungmung, which saw the composition of the first Assamese chronicles. Sukaphaa brings a divine diamond chum-Phra-rung-sheng-mung in a box, a divine tusked elephant, a divine chicken Kaichengmung, a divine embroidered cloth, a divine pair of drums, a divine sword Hengdan.
According to Phukan (1992), Sukaphaa was born to Chao Chang-Nyeu and Nang-Mong Blak-Kham-Sen in the Tai state of Mong Mao, close to present-day Ruili in Yunnan, China. Chao Chang Nyeu was a prince from Mong-Ri Mong-Ram, who had traveled to Mong Mao possibly on an expedition. Mong Mao was then ruled by Chao Tai Pung. Chao Chang Nyeu was later befriended by Pao Meo Pung, the son of the ruler, who gave his sister Blak Kham Sen in marriage. Sukaphaa was born of this union not later than 1189 CE and was brought up by his maternal grandparents. Pao Meo Pung, who eventually ruled Mong Mao, had no male heir and Sukaphaa, his nephew, was nominated to succeed him. A son born late to Pao Meo Pung’s queen ended Sukaphaa’s claim to the throne of Mong Mao.
After his 19 years as crown prince came to an end, Sukaphaa decided to leave Mong Mao. According to tradition, his grandmother advised him thus – “no two tigers live in the same jungle, no two kings sit on the same throne.” Accordingly, Sukaphaa is said to have left Chieng-Sen the capital of Mong Mao in the year 1215 CE.
Migration to Assam
According to most Buranjis, Sukaphaa left Mong Mao in 1215. Some Tai chronicles from outside Assam record the journey of Sukaphaa from Mong-Mit Kupklingdao in 1227 where he was the ruler. Sukaphaa followed an older known route from Yunnan to Assam that passed through Myitkyina, Mogaung and the upper Irrawaddy river valley.
On his way, he stopped at various places and crossed the Khamjang river to reach the Nangyang lake in 1227. Here he subjugated the Nagas very ferociously and established a Mong. He left one Kan-Khrang-Mong there to guard the passage back, and proceeded to cross the Patkai hills at the Pangsau pass and reached Namrup (in the Brahmaputra valley) in December 1228.
He was accompanied by three queens: Ai-Me-Chao-Lo, Nang-Sheng-Chum-Hpa and Yi-Lo-Weng-Ching-Chum-Hpa, two sons and a daughter; chiefs from five other dependent Mongs; members of the priestly class and soldiers—a total contingent of 9,000. Sukaphaa had with him 300 horses fitted with saddles and bridles and two elephants. Heavy arms were transported along a different route.
King of Ahom kingdom
The journey, from Mong Mao to Namrup thus took Sukaphaa about thirteen years and the year he reached Namrup is considered as the year the Ahom kingdom was established.
Even though Sukaphaa treated the people of the Patkai hills very severely on his way to the Brahmaputra valley, his approach to the population in Assam was conciliatory and non-confrontational. He married the daughters of Badaucha, the Matak Chief and Thakumatha, the Barahi chief and established cordial relations with them. As he began establishing his domain, he avoided regions that were heavily populated. He encouraged his soldiers as well as members of the Ahom elite to marry locally.
A process of Ahomization bolstered the process of integration. The Barahi and the Moran, speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages, called Sukaphaa’s people “Ha-Cham”, that later on developed into “Assam”, the name of the kingdom; and “Ahom”, the name of the people.
With the help of local recruits, he established three large farms for sali rice cultivation.
At the time of his death in 1268, his kingdom was bounded by the Brahmaputra River in the west, the Disang River in the north, the Dikhow River in the south and the Naga Hills in the east.
Ahom Capital
Over the next few years, he moved from place to place searching for the right capital, leaving behind his representative at each stage to rule the colonized land.
Having reached Namrup, Sukaphaa bridged the Sessa river, and went upstream along the Burhi Dihing river looking to establish a colony for wet rice cultivation. He did not find the region conducive to cultivation and returned downstream to Tipam.
In 1236, he left Tipam for Abhaypur. A flood made his move again in 1240 down the Brahmaputra to Habung. Another flood and he moved again in 1244, down the Brahmaputra to the Dikhowmukh, and then up the Dikhow river to Ligirigaon. Leaving a detachment at Ligirigaon, he moved again in 1246 to Simaluguri.
In 1253, he abandoned Simaluguri for Charaideo, his final capital, where he finally died in 1268. He built his capital city at Charaideo near present-day Sibsagar town.
The capital of the Ahom kingdom changed many times after this, but Charaideo remained the symbolic center of Ahom rule.
Memorial
Since 1996, December 2 has been celebrated in Assam as the Sukaphaa Day, or Assam Day (Axom Divawkh), to commemorate the advent of the first king of the Ahom kingdom in Assam after his journey over the Patkai Hills
An award is given by State Govt. that day to a prominent personality.
Sukapha Samannay Kshetra – Inaugurated on December 2, 2015, at Mohbondha, Jorhat.
Assam & North East India during Govt of India Act, 1935 and India’s Independence
Government of India Act, 1935 in North East India
Under the Government of India Act, 1935, the administrative pattern of the region was bifurcated from April 1937.
The Mizo Hills, Naga Hills, North Cachar hills and North East Frontier tracts were called “excluded areas” i.e. these areas were excluded from ministerial jurisdiction and were guarded by “inner line” which prevented the entry of outsiders without permit.
The Garo Hills, the British Portion of Khasi Jaintia Hills and Mikir Hills were termed “partially excluded” areas.
Two princely states of Manipur and Tripura maintained relationship with the British govt through the agency of the Government of Assam, and an “unadministered Naga tribal area”.
The 1935 Act marked a major beginning in the growth of tribal alliances. Major tribes of the hills and the plains such as the Nagas, Khasis, Bodos, Miris, Kacheris, and Seweris pressed their demands through various organizations such as the Naga club, Seng Khasi club, Khasi Darbar, Tribal League and Ahom League. Many of their leaders like Rup Nath Brahma, Karo Chandra Boley and Jadav Chandra Khaklari were members of the Legislative Assembly.
The Naga Hill District Tribal Council was organized by Charles Pawsy, Deputy Commissioner of the Naga Hills district, in 1945. In April 1946, the organization was renamed the Naga Nationalist Council and the idea of ethnocentric nationalism emerged.
During the first half of 1946 two other prominent organizations (1) Garo National Council and (2) Mizo Union were formed.
Political trends of frontal tribes during India’s Independence
During the period of India’s independence, there were two major political trends among the tribes of North -East India
Groups like Mizo Union, Garo National Council, East Indian Tribal Union and All Party Hill Leaders Conference were in favour of asserting more tribal autonomy within the Indian Union.
Groups like the Naga Nationalist Council, the United Mizo Freedom Organization and the Mizo National Front wanted complete independence for tribal areas.
Social Movement of Tribes in Assam & North East India
Movements of the frontier tribes (North East India)
The North-Eastern tribal region differed substantially from the rest of the tribal India in two basic aspects, (i) tribals formed an overwhelming majority and so were relatively economically and socially secure and (ii) because of their geo-political situation of living in the vicinity of the international border, this region was not completely integrated with the politico-economic system of colonialism and remained somewhat isolated from the main land.
North-Eastern frontier has witnessed tribal movements of considerable proportion. These movements tended to remain aloof from the freedom struggle often incorporating a demand for political autonomy either within the India or as a separate unit. This was also because geo-political isolation from mainland India and their shared ethnic and cultural affinities with tribesmen across the border.
There was hardly any agrarian forest-based movement as the tribals remained in possession of land and surrounding forests except Tripura. The movements in the north-east were by and large revolutionary or revivalist.
Unlike other part of India, Sanskritision did not became popular in this region due to their relative isolation from the Hindu society and spread of Christian missionary activities.
The movements in the North-East tended to be political and secular and were mainly due to tribal’s deep resent of British penetration in their areas, which started during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26), Annexed the Jaintia hills in 1832, including the earlier 25 khasi states. Each of these events was followed by revolts.
De-Sanskritisation Movement
In Manipur, a ‘De-Sankritisation’ movement was begun among the Meiteis, some of whom rebelled against the corrupt malpractises of the neo-Vaishnavite Brahmins during the rule of the Churchand Maharaj (1891-1941). They felt that a combination of Brahmins, the Maharaja and the British were spoiling their society, and wanted to return to the nativistic Sanmali cult and movement started in 1939.
In 1946, Raj Kumar Bhubansena formed the state Congress. Hajin Irbot formed the Krishak Sena and the Communist Party.
Tribal Revolts in Assam & North East India – PART 2: (APSC Assam History Notes) (Rani Gaidinliu’s Naga Movement, Zeliangsong Movement, Naga Kuki revolt, Lushais and Kharwar rebellion)
Tribal Revolts in Assam & North East India – PART 2
Rani Gaidinliu’s Naga Movement
Rongmei leader Jadonang came to the fore to bring about social unity and to revitalize the age-old religion by abolishing irrational customs. His aimed to establish a Naga Raj but was captured and hanged on August 29, 1931.
After that the movement was carried on by 17-year-old Gaidinliu, she integrated the tribal movement with the Civil Disobedience movement and preached disobedience to oppressive laws and non-payment of house tax.
The movement tried to link with Indian National Congress but it remained weak as Congress could not enter the hills.
Jadonang’s religious ideas crystallized in the Heraka cult led by Gaidinliu. After the movement was finally suppressed in 1932, it was converted into a peaceful movement with the establishment of tribal various organizations.
Zeliangsong Movement
The Zeliangsong movement among the Nagas of Manipur belonging to Zemi, Liangmei, and Rongmei tribes.
Naga Revolt:
The Nagas revolted against the British in 1849, but was suppressed in 1850-51.
Kuki revolt:
The kukis of the Lushai Hills and nearby hilly regions of Manipur and Tripura attacked the British territories repeatedly in 1829, 1844 and 1849.
The Kukis had migrated to Manipur in the 18th century.
The British policy of recruitment for coolie labour during World War – I seriously affected the stability of labour–short Kuki economy in general and their agriculture particularly.
Guerrilla war under their chiefs went on for two years, fuelled also by other grievances like pothang (tribals being made to carry baggages of official without payment) and government efforts to stop shifting cultivation of jhum.
Lushais:
In 1842 the Lushais raided British territory of Arakan, Sylhet and defeated the British forces. In 1844 the Lushais attacked Manipuri villages and reprisals by the British followed. Sukla, the Lushai leader, was arrested and transported for life. In 1860 the Lushai chief raided Tripura and killed 186 British subjects.
Kharwar rebellion:
The Kharwar rebellion took place in 1870 and in 1882, Sambhudan led a revolt of the Kacha Nagas of Cachar to attacked the whites. Sambhuden who claimed that his magic had made his followers immune to bullets.
Some other tribal movements
In 1835 the saflas raided British plains subjects and again they revolted in 182-73.
In 1836 the Mishimis killed a botanist, Griffith and two missionaries.
Between 1839 and 1842 there was a Khampti uprising in Assam when they attacked and killed British Agent Adam White and 80 other officers and soldiers.
Between 1860 and 1862 there was a revolt of Syntengs of Jaintia Hills.
Tribal uprisings in Tripura
Tripura witnessed large-scale and agrarian and forest-based movements. The demographic profile of tribals changed from 64% in 1874 to 36% in 1911 because the Raja of Tripura invited Bengalis to settle in Tripura for economic development of the state.
Parikshit Jamatia led a movement against arbitrary rate of house tax in 1863. Bharti Sangh started revolutionary activities in Tripura in mid-1920s. The Reangs under the leadership of Ratnamani rose an armed rebellion in 1942–1943 in the southern sub-division of Tripura and proclaimed independence.
A Ganga Parishad was formed in 1937 similar to the States People’s Conferences in other Princely States.
Tribal Revolts in Assam & North East India – PART 1
Khasi Uprising (1829-1833)
After the end of the first Anglo-Burmese war, the British occupied the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia hills, and planned to build a road linking the Brahmaputra valley with Sylhet passing through the entire length of the Khasi area.
Conscriptions of labourers for road construction and a British garrison disobeying orders of Khasi king to stop the road construction project, led the Khasis to revolt under the leadership of Tirot Sing Syiem.
The Khasi chiefs number around 30 decided to throw out the British from the region and organized themselves under Bar Manik. The Garos also joined the revolt.
The revolt lasted for four years and was finally suppressed in early 1833 and the British gained supremacy over these hills. Tirot Sing was eventually captured by the British in January 1833 and deported to Dhaka and he died on 17 July 1835.
Ahom Revolt (1828)
To suppress the Moamoria rebels who captured the capital Rangpur, Ahom King Gaurinath Singha sought help of East India Company. In 1792 Thomas Welsh came with 550 well trained and well armed troops and occupied Guwahati and restored Rangpur to Gaurinath Singha, and they returned to Bengal on May 25, 1794.
Again British came to Assam’s rescue in the first Burma War (1824-26). Though they had pledged to withdraw from Assam after the first Burma War (1824-26), but in contrast, they tried to incorporate the Ahom territories into their dominion. This resulted in a rebellion against the British in 1828.
Under the leadership of Ahom prince Gomdhar Konwar, an armed revolt rose against the British, a year after it was annexed by the British from the Ahoms with the signing of the Treaty of Yandabo. He along with Dhanjoy Borgohain and their followers started a revolt to fight against the British and burned the British armoury at Rangpur and fought the British in Mariani.
The British military suppressed this revolt, Konwar fled to the Naga Hills but soon was arrested and sentenced to seven years of imprisonment and exiled to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Though the revolt failed in it’s goal against the British, they succeeded to put a sense of independence in the minds of the people. As a result as a conciliatory policy, in the year 1833, the British handed over the entire Upper Assam, except Sadiya and Matak region, to Ahom Prince Purandar Singh on the condition of yearly tribute of 50,000 rupees.
In 1838, Purandar Singh defaulted in payments of revenue; the British formally annexed the kingdom, putting an end to the reign of Ahom Dynasty.
Singhphos rebellion (1830-1839)
While the British were engaged in the long lasting warfare with the Khasis, the Singhphos broke into open rebellion in early 1830, which was suppressed very quickly within 3 months. But the discontentment of the Singhphos remained and again the rose in rebellion in 1839 when they killed the British political agent.
Again in 1843, the Singhphos Chief Nirang Phidu attacked the British garrison and killed several soldiers. In 1849, Khasma Singhphos attacked British village in Assam and was captured in 1855.
