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The first century CE onwards, Gandhara, Mathura in northern India and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh emerged as important centres of art production. Buddha in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the confluence of Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandhara tradition.
The local sculptural tradition at Mathura became so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern India. The best example in this regard is the stupa sculptures found at Sanghol in the Punjab. The Buddha image at Mathura is modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features. Images of Vaishnava and Shaiva faiths are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images are found in large numbers. It may be noted that the images of Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their ayudhas/weapons. There is boldness in carving the large images, the volume of the images is projected out of the picture plane, the faces are round and smiling, heaviness in the sculptural volume is reduced to relaxed flesh. The garments of the body are clearly visible and they cover the left shoulder.
Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis, Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities and portrait statues are profusely sculpted. In the second century CE, images in Mathura get sensual, rotundity increases, they become fleshier. In the third century CE, treatment of sculptural volume changes by reducing the extreme fleshiness, movement in the posture is shown by increasing distance between the two legs as well as by using bents in the body posture. Softness in the surface continues to get refined. The trend continues in the fourth century CE but in the late fourth century CE, the massiveness and fleshiness is reduced further and the flesh becomes more tightened, the volume of the drapery also gets reduced and in the fifth and sixth centuries CE, the drapery is integrated into the sculptural mass. Transparent quality in the robes of the Buddha images is evident. In this period, two important schools of sculptures in northern India are worth noting. The traditional centre, Mathura, remained the main art production site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged as important centres of art production.
Many Buddha images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery covering both shoulders, and the halo around the head has very little ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddhaimages continue to depict folds of the drapery in the Buddha images and the halo around the head is profusely decorated.
Alamgirpur in Meerut District of Uttar Pradesh, India
Babar Kot, Saurashtra – A stone fortification wall, plant remains of millets & gram.
Balu, Haryana – Earliest evidence of garlic. Several plant remains were found here include various types of barley, wheat, rice, horse gram, green gram, various types of a pea, sesamum, melon, watermelon, grapes, dates, garlic, etc. which is comparable to a nearby IVC site Kunal, Haryana revealed remains of rice.
Banawali, Fatehabad District of Haryana – Barley, terracotta figure of plough
Baror, Sri Ganganagar district of Rajasthan- Human skeleton, ornaments, 5 meter long and 3 meter clay oven, a pitcher filled with 8000 pearls
Bet Dwarka in Dwarka district, Gujarat- Late Harappan seal, inscribed jar, the mould of coppersmith, a copper fishhook
Bhirrana, Fatehabad District of Haryana – Graffiti of a dancing girl on pottery, which resembles a dancing girl statue found at Mohenjo-Daro
Daimabad, Ahmadnagar District of Maharashtra – A sculpture of a bronze chariot, 45 cm long and 16 cm wide, yoked to two oxen, driven by a man 16 cm high standing in it; and three other bronze sculptures. Southernmost IVC site
Desalpur in Nakhtrana Taluka, Kutch District of Gujarat – Massive stone fortification, Harappan pottery, three script bearing seals; one of steatite, one of copper and one of terracotta.
Dholavira, Kutch District of Gujarat – Water reservoir, Dholavira Figure of chariot tied to a pair of bullocks and driven by a nude human, Water harvesting and number of reservoirs, use of rocks for constructions
Farmana, Rohtak District of Haryana – Largest burial site of IVC, with 65 burials, found in India
Gola Dhoro, kutch district of Gujarat – Production of shell bangles, semi-precious beads, etc.
Hisar mound inside Firoz Shah Palace of Hisar District, Haryana – Unexcavated site
Juni Kuran, Kutch District of Gujarat – fortified citadel, lower town, public gathering area
Jognakhera, Kurukshetra of Haryana – Copper smelting furnaces with copper slag and pot shards
Kaj, Gir Somnath District of Gujarat – Ceramic artifacts, including bowls. Ancient port.
Kanjetar, Gir Somnath District of Gujarat – Single phase Harapppan site.
Kalibangan, Hanumangarh District of Rajasthan- Baked/burnt bangles, fire altars, Shiva Lingam, small circular pits containing large urns and accompanied by pottery, bones of camel
Karanpura near Bhadra city, Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan – Western mound called citadel Skeleton of child, terracotta like pottery, bangles, seals similar to other Harappan sites
Khirasara, Kutch district of Gujarat – Ware House, Industrial area, gold, copper, semi-precious stone, shell objects, and weight hoards
Kerala-no-dhoro or Padri in Saurashtra, Gujarat – Salt production centre, by evaporating sea water
Kunal, Fatehabad District in Haryana India – Earliest Pre-Harappan site, Copper smelting.
Kuntasi in Rajkot District of Gujarat – Small port
Loteshwar in Patan District of Gujarat – Ancient archaeological site
Lothal, Ahmedabad District of Gujarat – Bead making factory, dockyard, button seal, fire altars, painted jar, earliest cultivation of rice (1800 BC)
Manda in Jammu & Kashmir India- northernmost Harappan site in Himalayan foothills
Malwan in Surat District, Gujarat – Southernmost Harappan site in India
Mandi, Muzaffarnagar district of Uttar Pradesh
Mitathal of Bhiwani District in Haryana
Pabumath in Kutch District in Gujarat – A large building complex, unicorn seal, shell bangles, beads, copper bangles, needles, antimony rods, steatite micro beads; pottery include large and medium size jars, beaker, dishes, dish-on-stand, perforated jars etc.; fine red pottery with black painted designs etc.
Rakhigarhi in Hisar District of Haryana – Terrecotta wheels, toys, figurines, pottery. Large site, partially excavated.
Rangpur in Ahmedabad District of Gujarat – Seaport
Sanauli in Baghpat District, Uttar Pradesh – Burial site with 125 burials found
Shikarpur, Gujarat – Food habit details of Harappans
Surkotada in Kutch District of Gujarat – only site where Bones of a horse were found
Kotada, Kutch District of Gujarat – Fortification bastion few houses foundations
Nageshwar, Kutch District of Gujarat – Shell working site
The Indian Sub-continent is one of the earliest civilisations and thus attracted many travellers and scholars since ancient times.
1.Al-Biruni
Country: Iran
Period of Travel: 1017 AD
He travelled to the Indian subcontinent and authored a study of Indian culture Tārīkh al-Hind (History of India) after exploring the Hindu faith practiced in India.
Under Reign : Sultan of Muhammad of Ghazni
2. Marco Polo
Country: Italy
Period of Travel: 1288-1292 AD
Under Reign : Pandya Kingdom
3. Ibn-e-Batuta
Countr: Morocco
Period of Travel: 1333-1342 AD
Under Reign : Mohammad Bin Tughlaq
4. Nicoloi Conti
Country: Italy
Period of Travel: 1420-1422 AD
Under Reign : Dev Ray I (Vijay Nagar)
Abdur Razzak-Ambassador
Country: Iran
Period of Travel: 1442-1443 AD
Under Reign : Dev Ray II (Vijay Nagar)
Athnasius Niketin
Country: Russia
Period of Travel: 1470-1474 AD
Under Reign : Mohammad III Bahmani
Alberuni’s Description of India
Bartholomu Diaz
Country: Italy
Period of Travel: 1503-1508 AD
Under Reign : Deccan
Eduardo Barbosa
Country: Portugal
Period of Travel: 1516-1518 AD
Under Reign : Krishna Dev Ray (Vijay Nagar)
Domingo’s Paes
Country: Portugal
Period of Travel: 1520-1522 AD
Under Reign : Krishna Dev Ray (Vijay Nagar)
Nuniz
Country: Portugal
Period of Travel: 1535-1537 AD
Under Reign : Achyut Dev Ray (Vijay Nagar)
Anthony Monserrate
Country: Portugal
Period of Travel: 1578-1582 AD
Under Reign : Akbar
Ralph Fisch
Country: Britain. He was the First English traveller
Write answers to these Questions, Review others’ Answer, Ask Doubts and Discuss
Q1. Give a brief account of establishment of British Rule in North East India. (250 Words)
Q2. Discuss the role of women in India’s freedom struggle. (250 Words)
Q3. Lord Dalhousie was oftern described as the founder of modern India. Explain in details. (250 Words)
Q4. Discuss how the Revolt of 1857 became a very important factor in the evolution of British policies towards colonial India. (150 Words)
NOTE: Learners please write the answers and review others’ answer , which will ultimately improve the answer writer, reviewer and most importantly the answer itself.
